Human Services Program and Profession Discussion UNIT 6 Research Paper

Human Services Program and Profession Discussion UNIT 6 - Research Paper Example More so, today several laws were made with the purpose of protecting a child’s right (Stein, 2006). These laws include protection from abuse, exploitation, discrimination and neglect. Second right to a provision in terms of education health and a standard of living and the right to participation in communities and have services and programs for children. These laws have developed gradually since the orphan train. Children and adolescents are sometimes unable to verbalize their thoughts about what they are feeling and want they go through during the day. Some of the health issues they face include anxiety, suicidal thoughts, depression, drug use and long term behavioral problems such as conduct disorder. According to mental health professionals in schools, some of these emotional and behavioral problems are because of school violence or bullying (Finch, 2012). These issues can be treated by observing the child or the teen, and analyzing the frequency of the problem. The two agencies in child, adolescent and family are The National Association of Child Care Recourse and Referral Agencies (NACCRRA) and The Administration of Children and Families (ACF). The ACF is a federal agency that provides programs that are related to children family issues, such as, childcare and support, and child welfare. The NACCRRA objective is to make sure families get access to the best and affordable health care (Pecora, 2009) the agency also maintains state childcare resources as well as programs or people that care for

Philadelphia Healthcare System Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Philadelphia Healthcare System - Assignment Example The Philadelphia healthcare system can be termed as one the most developed health care system. The hospitals in this area are equipped with more than 300 beds which gives them a capacity of over 300 inpatients. A large number of beds in hospitals indicates that the hospitals in these regions are well equipped with facilities to take good care of inpatients. The capacity of a health care system is a critical factor in any region in a country. A large capacity allows the hospitals to respond to emergency matters and guarantee the patients of quality health in a time of need. The availability of these facilities ensures better health care, lower mortality rate and a healthier public in the country. The high capacity of the medical hospitals in Philadelphia indicates that the hospital has the capacity to take care of the health needs of the society. Also, the availability of this capacity indicates that the health system has enough medical personnel to take care of the health needs of th e society. Judging from this capacity, it is possible to regard Philadelphia as one of the best medical health systems in the United States. The hospital care intensity index is one the ratios that are used to measure the quality of healthcare within a health system. This figure provides the ratio between the number of days that a patient stayed in hospital and the number of times that they received attention from the medical staff within the hospital. In essence, this ratio is a representation of the availability of medical staff which in turn indicates the degree to which a healthcare system is equipped with medical personnel.  

Reasons to Study in the UK

Reasons to Study in the UK International students travel to UK to study for different reasons despite the cost implications involved. In other to overcome certain negative but compulsory experiences such as culture shock, depression and home sickness etc. Students must carefully manage their time well during their study stay in the UK. If these measures are adhered to, international students will not find it difficult studying in the UK. Due to the fact the UK has a concussive environment for teaching and learning styles. INTRODUCTION Studies have shown that there is no superior culture over another, every culture is unique in its own way, and different people have different culture. Culture, can be described as the mode of dressing, eating, communication styles, languages spoken, teaching and learning styles, reaction to time(time management) by a certain group of people. Culture varies from place to place in the sense that different societies and communities adopt different cultures. This report examines and analysis the different reasons why international students come to study in the UK and the challenges they face here. Some of these reasons identified are: to learn a new language, travelling opportunities, to enable one understand another culture first hand, to develop skills, opportunity to make new friends around the world, enables one to know more about his or her own culture, helps to widen ones global view, to enhance employment opportunity, enables one to break out of ones academic routine of home country and finally helps to add value or improves ones degree. Haven known these reasons, for coming to study in the UK, this report further gives some challenges and key issues experienced by international students. Some of these issues identified are: culture shock, teaching and learning styles (similarities and differences between the UK and home country), time management issues, fees and funding, and finally regular problems faced by international student s. Some of the key issues which shall be discussed in this report are culture shock, problems faced by international students, time management, fees and funding and teacher/student role expectations in the UK. MAIN BODY/ANALYSIS The united kingdom is a very nice and wonderful place to study and students from different countries prefer to study in UK this is due the quality of the education and the students also has an opportunity to gain a prestigious qualification. This report therefore provides an insight in to the perceptions of the international students and their experiences here in UK. The experiences of the students studying here in UK will be discussed under the following headings they are culture shock, time management, fees and funding, teacher/student role expectation and the problems faced by international students in UK. All these will be discussed below. CULTURE SHOCK The term culture was defined by Bock(1970) as primarily an emotional reaction that follows from not been to understand control and predict another`s behaviour. It can also be described as a way of life in a particular region in terms of customs, traditions etc.  Ã‚  Each and every nation is deeply rooted within its own culture. The  culture  makes each country very special and different from one another, so does the person belong to a particular culture. Therefore the role of the culture in the process of national progress is unquestionable. The way we are brought up and our personality is built up has  a lot to do with the culture. Therefore  culture means a lot to the nation as well as to the  people. It is a fact that we always  prefer to hold on to our culture as we attach an  emotional  component to our culture. Therefore  one can be easily offended in cultural issues.   It is very difficult for a person to understand and get adapted to another culture in case the  situation  demands. Therefore when we visit a  foreign  nation, one of the difficulties we encounter is the cultural issue. Due to our way of living, customs and manners change completely and it becomes a novel experience to us. Sometimes we get confused regarding what to adopt and  what  not. Some times when in the foreign country, we are forced to adopt certain manners  which are exact opposite to our idea of culture, as a way of showing civility. So it can cause a lot of discomfort to us,  especially with a person who is very new to the country.  Therefore  it paves the way for a cultural shock for the individuals new to the country. For the individuals very new to the country, the one way cultural shock arises is through the communication issues. Communication is everything to an individual. So when there is not a space for an easy  communication, it really frustrates the individual. But  here in this country, language barrier is not at all a matter as  English  stands as the  global  language. But for an individual from a non-European country, it is not very easy to catch the foreign accent  which with they speak  English. Once he or she gets  accustomed to the  foreign  accent, which is no longer a matter to him or her.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Cultural shock is not something which we need to be scared of; it can be overcome through proper planning and understanding. Adopt the things which fits us, feels us comfortable, and which seems to be good. Through this we can minimize the shock since a change has never been difficult for human beings.   Few things which you find difficult to get adjusted in the initial stages are: The climate   Food   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Climate change and food is not related to the culture, but its a huge  task for foreigners to get adjusted with the climate and typical food over there) 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social behaviour Language   It creates a little discomfort to us. But time makes it manageable To sum up, cultural shock occurs as the result of ones total immersion in a new culture. It happens to people who have been transplanted to abroad.  As it is mentioned earlier, the problem with the culture shock is mainly for the new comers.  Newcomers may be little anxious and worried because they even do not speak the language as exact as it is, know the customs, or understand peoples behaviour.  But the problem no longer exists as he or she starts understanding and learning their customs and manners and begins to get adjusted to the culture in a way that is not challenging ones own culture. Therefore the process needs time as  it is a process to obtain a true realization of the atmosphere we are. PROBLEMS FACED BY INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS As human beings every individual has to face different kinds of problems in their life. Problems can happen at any time to anybody in any situation but we should try to handle all the problems. In this context, that is studying in UK the international students should face different kinds of problems some of them are Language barriers communication skills Plagiarism Acceptance of culture Problems relating jobs Immigration Difference in education system I. Language is one of the important medium of communication. Without communicating each other we cannot understand others views, ideas and feelings and we cannot transfer our perceptions to others as well. People from different countries they use different languages not only the language but also the accent, pronunciation, style of talking, way of expressing their feelings everything varied from each other. So when these people come to UK to continue their higher education its quite difficult to adjust with each other. For example people from Nigeria have a different style of talking especially their accent is very different so the people from other countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc. have a slight problem to follow their accent. II. Secondly, the biggest trouble faced by the students is plagiarism. In some countries for example in India, there is no problem like plagiarism while submitting the assignments. So once we started to study here it is a big tension for the students at the time of assignment submission and they are working hard to lessen the percentage of plagiarism. Not only the plagiarism but also the way of submitting the assignments is also different in many countries. Here first we should submit the assignments through breo and again we should submit it in a different way. All these are fairly new to the international students. III. Culture is something an individual should follow through out his life. So when we go to some other place where the culture is different it is very difficult to accept that. Culture reflects an individuals character, behaviour and over all it gives an outline of that person. If we believe in one culture its not very easy to change that. Other important fact is that here the living style and dressing style is different when we compare this with Indian culture. So people from India have a great difficulty to adjust with this culture. IV. One of the biggest challenges faced by the international students is the living expenses. Here standard of living is high so meeting the expenses is a big problem for the students especially if they have no job. Then getting a part time job is not very easy here because most of the companies prefer full time workers and the increasing number of students is also a big problem. The vacancies are less for the part timers but the intake of students in the universities is increasing per year. V. Immigration is not a very big deal for the international students but sometimes it may cause some problems, especially at the time of immigration the officers ask questions if they feel any kind of doubts or if they are not satisfied with our answers may be they will reject our visa. Problems can happen to anybody especially when we are living in another country. But never kneel down before the problems instead we should try to overcome the problems and succeed in our life. Lincy Mathew ID No: 1031582 TIME MANAGEMENT IMPORTANCE OF TIME Time plays great role in everyones life. Everyone has equal time. If nobody uses his time correctly, he will never have it back again. There is no one who can think that he will be success in his life without giving any importance to time. There are so many people who are famous in their different fields, why? Because, they know the importance of time. They spend their time to get that achievement. Time is very essential like our breath to live. We can never think about success without thinking about time. So it is very important to everyone give importance to time. TIME MANAGEMENT There are so many examples of time management. We can take an example of farmer if he will not reap his crop on time then what will happen? Obviously, he will have to face many problems which can be terrible. So time management is very important if we want to become success person in our life. For student, its really necessary for the reason that they must have to be punctual in their every task, not only in exam but also in every second of their study. Regarding my experience of student life In UK, we have to be practical in our study and give much time in study rather than other work. We should manage our time. If students do their work in time and serial ways then they realise that they have lot of time to do their work. Everyone knows the starting time of our life but nobody can think about the last time of our life. Hence we dont know how much time is left in our hand. WAY OF MANAGING TIME Using time table is one of the best way of utilize our sufficient time. In student life, to get achievement in study every students must have to follow their adequate time table. Everyone is different in their nature so using time table is also different from each other. But important thing is that we all must have to use our own timetable. It ensures that students are well prepared and give importance to their routine work and complete their every work in time. Make a good study habit; we should do our work regularly. The time which we spend in waiting, walking and so on, we can use this time to remind our work that we have learned. Make weekly schedule it can help the students to utilize their time. Make daily list to do routine work and study period. BENEFITS OF TIME MANAGEMENT Time management helps to control our life. The activity of pre planning helps us lot. It improves our confidence and efficiency. Without time management students can never think about to meet the goals. Only if manage time can enable them to meet the goals. Time is like an ice-cream, use it before it melts. Therefore give importance to time because it never comes back. From : Sandip Dandi FEES AND FUNDING Although the funding for the higher education has been quite a costly affair, it is being ignored by the individuals who are focussed towards their career especially when it comes to funding of the tuition fee for the studies abroad it is a critical aspect as many criterion have to be met to ensure a bright and purposeful career overseas. Considering the globalization factor overseas education is being opted by millions around the world. As a result even the governments of the developed nations have been signing pacts to exchange the student population for a better learned society. Though funding the tuition fee is one aspect, it has its after effects basing on the approach and the interest of an student shows to start a career on a international note. For example : Considering the tuition fee in the country like united kingdom , one can find the difference as the local students and people from European union are charged roughly around 3000 pounds, Where as the fee for the same course for the international students is 9800 pounds. There are different aspects to be taken care of like the bank loan, maintenance of funds for the student, etc. Hence the legislations of the developed nations should implement a new laws so that the funding issue for the merit students becomes easier .It is appreciable that the universities have started a helping hand in this regard. For example; the university offers scholarship and fee discount if it is paid at once and its nearby 500-1500 pounds. The British government in 2003 has introduced the system of variable tuition fee to help and support the education in the united kingdom and it has been successful in winning the votes of confidence .The government of united kingdom has also taken the initiative of solving the financial issues regarding the funding of education by granting the part time work for the students up to 20 hours per week and it had another practice called post study work permit , which will be granted for the span of two years . This has helped the students to a large extent in clearing their educational, maintenance loans etc. This has also given rise to the chances of increasing settling options in their respective career thus by improving the financial status of the students. Finally the funding factor of foreign education should be delta with great source of understanding and with appropriate information to ensure a peace. TEACHER /STUDENT ROLE EXPECTATION IN UK There are differences in learning styles when collated to one`s country of origin and this presents a difficulty for international students, Therefore in order to explain the differences in learning styles we will look at Hofstede` s (1986) view on cultural differences in teaching and learning which will be classified according to the culture of the society. Thus United Kingdom can be classified under these four dimensions of cultures and this also has an impact on the teaching and learning styles in England which will be discussed below. To further explain the teaching and learning styles in UK ,points will be taken from, Hofstede (1986) cultural differences in teaching and learning, which suggested that societies can be classified under the following cultural dimensions namely power distance societies, individualist societies, weak uncertainty avoidance societies and masculine societies .Firstly UK can be described as a small power distance society in the sense that in terms of their learning styles it is discovered that in school here teachers are expected to respect the independence of their students but in other countries like Nigeria which can be classified as large power distance society students are expected to respect their teachers, also in UK students are allowed to ask questions freely in class while in Nigeria the reverse is the case the student is allowed to talk only when invited by the teacher, during lectures in class a two-way communication is used to enhance learning therefore students are required to begin the communication and also students can oppose the teacher in class this issue of communication in class still affects some international students because they still have the fear in them that nobody has the right to speak whilst the lecture is going on or even to go contradicting the teacher. Also some issues that needs to be mentioned here is that in schools here in UK when conflict arises between the teacher and student, the parents or guardian of the student is expected to be in the supporting side of the student. Students here in UK prefer the young teachers than the old ones, in this case we the international students prefers the older teachers whom we believe has the skills of teaching and can as well impact knowledge in us. (this is from Nigerian perception),also in UK emphasis is laid on impersonal truth rather than wisdom which can in any principle be acquired from any capable person. Secondly United Kingdom can be described as a fairly masculine society in terms of their learning styles, this is because in schools male students tend to avoid traditionally feminine academic courses, students also choose academic courses to study in pursue of career opportunities. Here in UK students failure is a serious issue and its a severe blow to one`s self image . Teachers place a high esteem on best students in order to motivate the average students to work harder, it is however discovered that the Education system here in UK rewards academic performance for instance they offer scholarship to students all over the world. Thirdly in looking at the learning styles in UK from an individualist point of view it is discovered that they believe in permanent education that one is never too old to learn, here students are given the chance to do certain things themselves that is they are expected to learn how to learn, for example the university of Bedfordshire students are given access to learning facilities e.g. libraries filled with textbooks, journals, newspapers, access to computers in the library with Wi-Fi , free internet for students who live in the school hostel also library services can be accessed from home through digital library you can read e-journals, search data bases, check the catalogue and so on, All these resources provided by the school was to ensure the students learns how to learn and not solely depending on the lecturers for information. It is also found here in UK that lecturers tends to be unprejudiced they never give room for any preferential treatment they treat everybody as equal u nlike Nigeria where lecturers give preferential treatment to those related or close to him or rather those from the same ethnic background with him. In UK Education is viewed as way of enhancing one`s economic importance and self esteem based on skills and suitability, high value is placed on one`s suitability on skills and knowledge acquired rather than acquiring certificates. Finally United Kingdom is classified under weak uncertainty avoidance societies in terms their learning styles, however in this type of society students are convenient in an unstructured learning condition in school such as vague objectives, broad assignments, no timetables and so on, the international students finds it very hard to cope with this situation. Their view of a good teacher is one who uses a plain language to teach, hence teachers are allowed to say I dont know in class. Also it is being discovered that the students and teachers here are expected to restrain their emotions rather than expressing it. Students are rewarded for creativity. The learning styles in United Kingdom are completely different from other countries, for example in university of Bedfordshire the school environment is well structured and it is a conducive place to study. Generally United Kingdom is really a wonderful place to be in terms of academics. IBEKWE LINDA .U. 1031633 CONCLUSION In conclusion, this report shows that international students must undergo certain experiences such as culture shock as a result of change in the environment but further indicates that potential international students shouldnt be worried about that because it is a normal phenomenon that must occur. The report clearly also stated the importance of managing time through the use of time tables and related tools for managing time. Another issues analysed is the learning styles in Uk. It observed that this style were they make their lectures interactive ,enable their students learn independently and this is also achieved through the use of learning material in the libraries,internet,and other information sources. The report also indicated other problem like, immigration problems of unemployment, acceptance of culture, plagiarism, language barriers, and differences in education system. The report finally concludes by appreciating the environment of the UK as conducive for learning for inter national students. RECOMMENDATION This report shown the difficulties faced by international students in trying to adapt to a new academic environment and also providing a student view on possible approaches for improvement of their experiences. However some recommendations are made to enable the institutions in UK to make some changes in which will help enhance the students experience in studying in UK they are: firstly the institution needs to look into the teaching and learning styles to know whether they fit into the specific study needs of these students, also tutors should judge the suitability of strategies when accessing cohorts of these students for example the use of group work. Secondly the institution should make a provision for the students to instigate the social adjustment they student need to make. Thirdly the use of ice breakers is very important in the first one or two classes this helps students to get to know each other very well and also feel less self-conscious .finally tutors should also bear in mind that non-verbal communication is also a useful way of communicating in class and that there is a need for sensitivity towards cultural diversity in the classroom.

The Little Girl Who Changed My Life Essay -- Community Service, Servic

When I was a child, my grandparents always told me that children are the future of our world. A child needs to be shown how much they are able to achieve. A child not shown that will never blossom into the beautiful flower which they are meant to be. That is why I chose to volunteer at my community elementary school. I wanted to live the words that my grandparents told me, the words that would make a difference in my future. I was handpicked by the principal and the teacher to be the friend of a child who needed me. My journey began with a blonde-haired, blue-eyed little girl named Mary. Now, Mary isn’t your normal four-year-old who always wants to tell you what happened from the moment she wakes up. She never said one word to me from the moment I met her. I didn’t say much to her, either. All I kept telling her was we are going to have so much fun this year. When I went home that day, all I could think of was that I was picked for this child for a reason, and that while I was with her, I would make the best effort I could to change her outlook on the worl...

Ashbe and John Polk in ” Am I Blue,” by Beth Henley Essay

The environment that we live in can shape or change a person’s personality to who theybecome. This is one of the depictions in the one act play â€Å"Am I Blue,† written by Beth Henley. This play illustrates the two main characters, John Polk Richard and Ashbe Williams, of havingvery different influences and very different personalities, however their different personalitiescome together, and they realize how influenced they truly are by their surroundings and by eachother. John Polk and Ashbe come from very different social structures. John Polk, who is ashy, square minded seventeen year old boy, attends college as a freshman and is also ina fraternity with his brother. Ashbe however, is a very outspoken, eccentric sixteen year old girl. She a girl with horn rimmed glasses, and non-stop chitchat. She attends high school, and to Ashbe, having the right friends means acceptance in today’s world; However, she is considered an outcast worthy only of being teased and ridiculed by the very group by which she wants to be accepted. In comparison, John wants to be accepted by his fraternity brothers, however John doesnot want to experience rejection for thinking or acting against the crowd, and admits to Ashbethat it was his brother that convinced him into joining the fraternity. In contrast, Ashbe is a freespirited artistic individual, who believes in expressing individuality. Whether she is putting bluefood coloring in John Polk’s rum and coke, making paper hats, or stringing Cheerios together tomake a necklace, Ashbe expresses her own individuality, and by doing this she tries to show him how important being himself truly is, and bridges the loneliness which infuses them both. John Polk and Ashbe also come from different families structures. John comes from avery tight knit family that owns their own soybean farm, and his father hopes he will attendbusiness school and help manage the family business. However, John wants to do something elsewith his life. When Ashbe asks him what dose he want to become, he stated â€Å"I don’t know. Iwanted to be a minister or something good, but I don’t even know if I believe in God†(1971). John wants to be â€Å"a minister or something good.† However, his problems in life are breaking hisspirit and his belief in God disappears as he fills his life with immoral acts, like partying anddrinking in the fraternity. John also said â€Å"I never used to worry about being a failure. Now I thinkabout it all the time. It’s just I need to do something that’s †¦ fulfilling†(1971). John does notbelieve managing the soybean farm is fulfilling. Even though he does not want to work on thefarm, John feels obligated into making his dad happy. In contrast, Ashbe comes from a brokenfamily and lives in a messy run down apartment with her father, who leaves her home alone. Shehas very little contact with her mother and sister that live in Atlanta, and expresses her lonelinesswith the creativity she learned from her mother. Ashbe tries to help John explore his ownambitions and not allow others to make his ambitions for him. John is a custom to the fast life â€Å"of parties, booze, honking horns†(1962), and realizesthe adult world looms ahead, and concludes that life on the soybean farm is different fromfraternity life. He soon finds himself at a crossroads when his fraternity brothers get him a FrenchQuarter prostitute as an eighteenth birthday present so that he can become a man. He is verynervous and apprehensive about meeting her, and exercises poor judgment by saying â€Å"Oh, God, Ineed to get drunk†(1964). John resorts to drinking alcohol when he thinks about his problems,and drinks alcohol throughout the play to escape from his worries. In contrast, Ashbe is a social person, and she isn’t afraid to tell people the truth about themselves or the situation that theymight be in. Ashbe is quick to tell John Polk what she thought of him when they were arguing atAshbe’s house. She had called him a sheep for his life was already sketched out for him, evenbefore he was born, a nd when his father passes away he will inherit the family soy beam farm. She also called him a sheep for following what his brother did and doing what his fraternityfriends want him to do. John Polk had too much influence from his family, thus creating hispersonality like a sheep’s. Ashbe also said in an argument with John, that he is only in thefraternity because it is expected of him. John then resents the comment, but moments later herealizes  he is being normal. John stated â€Å"About me, you were right. I am a sheep, a normal one. I’ve been trying to get out of it but I’m as big a sheep as ever†(line 1971). John knows he doeswhat others expect. He says he can not deny wanting to become normal. John does not want toexperience rejection for thinking or acting against the crowd. She wants him to be himself andnot try to fit in with everyone else. John soon after realizes Ashbe is right, and the so calledfraternity friends only set him up with the prostitute because it was cool thing to do. By JohnPolk not going to the prostitute, he shows how he cares for Ashbe and not what the fraternityguys think. For the first time, John Polk does not follow the crowd, and he decides to follow hisown heart. http://www.olemiss.edu/depts/english/ms-writers/dir/henley_beth/Elizabeth Becker Henley was born May 8, 1952, in Jackson, Mississippi, the daughter of an attorney and an actress. Early on she dreamed of becoming an actress, and to that end she earned a B.F.A. at Southern Methodist University in 1974. While at SMU, she wrote her first play, the one-act Am I Blue, which was produced at SMU’s Margo Jones Theatre in 1973.

Augustine Original Sin

Liberty University The Theological Studies of Saint Augustine in Relation to the Doctrine of Original Sin A Paper Submitted To Dr. John Landers In Partial Fulfillment for the Course CHHI-520 Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary By Jaaval Cato Lynchburg, Virginia October 7, 2012 Table of Contents INTRODUCTION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 AUGUSTINE’S TAKE ON ORIGINAL SIN†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 5 AUGUSTINE’S TAKE ON ORIGINAL SIN AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO BAPTISM†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 7 OPPOSTIONS TO AUGUSTINE’S VIEW ON ORIGINAL SIN †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 0 MANICHEAN IMPACT ON AUGUSTINE’S VIEW OF ORIGINAL SIN†¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 11 PELAGIUS, CELESTIUS, AND JULIAN IN OPPOSITION WITH ORIGINAL SIN†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 13 CONCLUSION†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 16BIBLIOGRAPHY†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 Introduction The doctrine of original sin has been deliberated by Theologians, as well as Augustine for over fifteen centuries, although it is evidently stated in Romans 5:12 by the Apostle Paul, â€Å"Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death came through sin, and so death spread to all because all have sinned† (NRSV).By this statement, the apostle Paul informs the reader that sin and death entered the world through one man (Adam), with the result of it permeating the whole of humankind like a poison. â€Å"The solidarity of the human race with Adam led Ambrose to say, ‘Adam existed, and in him we all existed†¦ In Adam I fell, and in Adam I was cast out of Paradise, in Adam I died. ’† The doctrine of original sin has provoked much opposition amongst religious academia in regards to its teaching.It is one of the most â€Å"baleful† of ideas says, one modern scholar; it is â€Å"repulsive† and â€Å"revolting† says another. I have seen it variously described as an insult to the dignity of humanity, an insult to the grace and loving kindness of God, and an insult to God and humankind alike. Aurelius Augustinus (Saint Augustine) has contributed significantly to the discussion that remains highly contested in our present day, which coincidently i s not primarily exclusive of the church and those who disagree with him.All of Christendom and the entire church as a whole are indebted to Augustine who conveyed the theology of â€Å"original sin† and it implication for Christians today. Augustine's doctrine of justification is rooted heavily in his doctrine of original sin, for his doctrine of 2 justification provides the solution to the problem that his doctrine of original sin creates. This theological endeavor was initiated by Augustine in the late fourth and early fifth century. His full name is Aurelius Augustinus born November 13, 354. He is the major church father of the West and known predominantly as Augustine.Augustine’s view of original sin was initially shaped by early life experience beginning with his own pagan immoral behavior as a youth in Africa, with his time studying Manichaeanism, and the Genesis account of Adam and Eve. Augustine although know for his writings on original sin was not the first t o write about this subject matter, early church fathers such as Saint Ambrose the Bishop of Milan who subsequently was a mentor to Augustine and baptized him said in a commentary written on the Gospel of Luke â€Å"before we are born, we are all infected with the contagion of sin. Augustine provided much greater analysis ever-increasing and fine-tuning these thoughts from opinion into Christian dogma. In the biblical perspective, sin is not only an act of wrongdoing but a state of alienation from God. In reformed theology the doctrine of original sin has a firm biblical support: Genesis 3 where Adam and Eve trust the word of the serpent over the Word of God. Scripture also gives greater insight into the corruption initiated by Adam; this can be observed in two ways. First is the inherit sin caused by Adam, Romans 5:12-21 states that by one man was the 3 onduit in which sin entered the world. Secondly, Psalms 51:5 quotes Kind David as stating, â€Å"Behold, I was brought forth in i niquity and in sin my mother conceived me† (NASB). This statement references the sin all humankind has inherit from the one man (Adam), being passed from one generation to the next. Hence, the sin of Adam defiles all humanity including children, who have no other sins of their own. Therefore, all human beings are condemned because of the sin of Adam (â€Å"original sin†), which they bring with them and for which they become responsible, unless they are baptized.Augustine writes in his Confession poising several rhetorical questions about the sin inherited by children stating, â€Å"Alas for the sins of men! Man saith this, and Thou dost compassionate him; for Thou didst create him, but didst not create the sin that is in him. Who bringeth to my remembrance the sin of my infancy? For before Thee none is free from sin, not even the infant which has lived but a day upon the earth. Who bringeth this to my remembrance? Doth not each little one, in whom I behold that which I do not remember of myself? In what, then, did I sin? Is it that I cried for the breast? Augustine goes even further alluding to the distress he brought upon his mother saying, â€Å"she did weep and mourn, and in her agony was seen the inheritance of Eve,—seeking in sorrow what in sorrow she had brought forth. † The theme of being stained by sin will be broached by Augustine in other writings; such as, City of God, sermons, and letters addressing contemporaries who stood in opposition to his point of view. Augustine Bishop of Hippo began to institute his beliefs on how blemish of sin originating from Adam has corrupted the will of mankind; incidentally this ignited the argument 4 f his era that persists even in the present day church. There were many opponents who challenged Augustine, for instance fellow Bishops, Pelagius, the Donatist, the Manichaeism and the philosophers known as the Platonist. The latter, were two groups that Augustine earlier in his life were aff iliated with; therefore, he comprised a detailed list of those proponents who opposed his belief on original sin in addition to other beliefs he held and debate one another, each contesting the others line of reasoning. In fact these debates continued between Augustine and his contemporaries up until his death in A.D 540 having not completed his refutation of a Pelagian, Julian of Eclanum. Augustine and Julian debated such topics as the theory that grace was not necessary for saving action, free choice and will, baptism, and original sin. Julian would call the idea of original sin a contradiction of logic; being a prolific writer, Julian composed enough writings to comprise eight volumes all of which were sent to Augustine. Augustine was a hard worker and would write day and night, due to the large quantities of letters sent by Julian; Augustine spent a large amount of time in his latter days responding to Julian.The time was a great lost and Augustine was unable to complete his fin al compilation of letters and comments on sermons to be added in his writings called Retratctiones. In this present day, the argument on original sin remains a topic of contention, both in churches (Protestants and Catholics) and in the academic world. If a question were poised to most church parishioners, asking them if they had a view about original sin, one might garner a wide variety of response. Some might say they have no knowledge of this topic, some may refer to scripture as presented by the Apostle Paul in Romans 5:12 believing that it was applicable to 5 hat era and not for the present, to a belief that original sin is a matter relating to physical gratification instead of it being a consequence of Adam’s sin. Augustine, by his own account sheds light on his own personal struggle with lust by including it in his argument on original sin and free will. Augustine clearly gives insight to this matter by stating that sin does not arise from the body’s assault upo n the soul: bodily insubordination follows from the soul’s insubordination to God. This crucial matter is important in the life of all Christian believers, effecting their spiritual ormation and relationship with God. Augustine’s Take on Original Sin Based on his study of Genesis, chapter 1-3, Augustine formulated the foundation what most of Christianity recognizes today as the doctrine of sin. Augustine believed that Adam possessed original righteousness and perfection. He was immune from physical ills, surpassed all others in intellect, and was in a state of justification, illumination, and beatitude. The freedom Adam possessed was described by Augustine as posse non peccare (i. e. , able not to sin).According to Augustine, the fall of Adam thwarted mankind’s ability of being unable to sin. For Augustine there are several factors that have contributed to this loss and the effects have been devastated for mankind. The cunning of evil, free will and the inborn w ill of mankind endows them the capability to persevere and prevail over sin. The essence of original sin consists of humanity's participation in, and co-responsibility for, Adam's perverse choice. All are one with Adam when he made his choice and therefore all willed in and with Adam. 6Augustine focused on the will of man, believing that sin strongly affected and overpowered it primarily because of Adam’s sin. Consequently, humanity was left with little else then that day when they are called home to be with the Lord. Augustine reiterating that the pride of Adam – the deliberate choice to put his will above God’s Adam fell, and took us all with him into a fallen condition. Basically the only freedom mankind has is the freedom to sin, and the ability to receive the grace given by God. Augustine findings are not new discoveries; the topic had been proposed and argued centuries before Augustine.Ireaneus of Lyons had similarly argued that the Genesis account and the disobedience of Adam (failing to obey God) brought about hereditary sin, corrupting the good work God had done. For by summing up in Himself the whole human race from the beginning to the end, He has also summed up its death. From this it is clear that the Lord suffered death, in obedience to His Father, upon that day on which Adam died while he disobeyed God. Augustine having been mentored by the Bishop of Milan, commonly known as Saint Ambrose may have acquired the point view that God held all mankind responsible for the disobedience and culpability of Adam.The solidarity of the human race with Adam led Ambrose to say, â€Å"Adam existed, and in him we all existed†¦ In Adam I fell, and in Adam I was cast out of Paradise, in Adam I died. † Ambrose succeeded in opening the Scriptures for Augustine, arousing in him a desire to discover them for himself. City of God, written by Augustine, attributes disobedience to choice; â€Å"free will in arrogance and disobedienceâ⠂¬  will drive man to his death, this death not being from the natural, which was the 7 common view argued by Pelagius and his followers but as a direct result of man being rebellious to the commands of Yahweh.Augustine also recognized that people being made in the image of God were distinct from the natural world, having a soul but not immortal as the angels, in-between. The Spiritual souls of human beings give access to a saving truth and goodness when they freely adhere to their Creator in friendship available through grace, which was restored by the second Adam, Christ. When man obeys they are granted immortality, as the Angels, and if they are disobedient they will die, not pertaining to the physical death of the body but a spiritual death (eternal separation from God).Augustine’s Take on Original Sin and Its Relationship to Baptism. When points of view are constructed and formulated, most often realization and answers result. A derived result for Augustine was the rela tionship between original sin, and baptism, including infant. According to Catholic tradition infant baptism is a sacrament that must be carried out. Augustine was not the first to recognize this fact, similar to Irenaeus and his perception of original sin. Infant baptism had been practiced by the Roman Catholic Church centuries before Augustine composed his line of reasoning on baptism.According to Augustine the only way to safe guard an infant child against the perils of sin was to baptize them. Augustine postulated that unless infants were baptized and partook of the Eucharist they would not have eternal life. Infants have been born guilty, due to their solidarity in Adam, and stand in need of redemption. When faced with the objection that infants must be exempt from original sin since they cannot will freely, Augustine replied that there is nothing absurd in speaking of their original sin as 8 voluntary since it is derived from the free act of their first parent.Although Pelagiu s and Julian would contest this practice, the Catholic Church, and Protestant Orthodoxy (Anglican and Greek Orthodox) still practice infant baptism in this present time. Augustine recalls his own baptism, Ambrose the Bishop of Milan prepared Augustine for baptism. According to Paulinus, Ambrose was personally involved in initiating all catechumens. Though Ambrose and Augustine had little personal contact, they would have spent considerable time together during the period of Lent leading up to the Easter baptism†¦. eing baptized on Easter in the year A. D. 337. Augustine particular consideration to the baptizing of infants’ remains in controversy today, the Protestant Evangelical church does not hold to the doctrine of infant baptism; salvation is not contingent upon baptism or vice versa. Early on in his life Augustine while in his firt return trip to Africa, he thought it peculiar that infant baptism was practiced professing, â€Å"How could this be truly valuable, doi ng this to babies who have no understanding of what was going on. â€Å"Hope does not disappoint, because the love of God has been poured out within our hearts through the Holy Spirit who was given to us† (Romans 5:5). Augustine comes to the conclusion that baptism brings the indwelling of the Holy Spirit. This Gift which is the Holy Spirit is called by later theologians â€Å"uncreated grace. † What Augustine calls the grace of caritas is called sanctifying or habitual grace in late theology†¦ All sins are forgiven at baptism, that is to say, original sin and actual sins if the believer has committed them.Nevertheless, Augustine as a new Bishop felt duty-bound to carry on with the ritual of baptizing infants. Infant baptism caused no harm both spiritually and physically, having an added advantage of removing the 9 blemish of the original sin inherited from Adam. Augustine viewed baptism as a sacrament of regeneration, â€Å"But the sacrament of baptism is undoub tedly the sacrament of regeneration: Wherefore, as the man who has never lived cannot die, and he who has never died cannot rise again, so he who has never been born cannot be born again.From which the conclusion arises, that no one who has not been born could possibly have been born again in his father. Born again, however, a man must be, after he has been born; because, ‘Except a man be born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God' Even an infant, therefore, must be imbued with the sacrament of regeneration, lest without it his would be an unhappy exit out of this life; and this baptism is not administered except for the remission of sins. And so much does Christ show us in this very passage; for when asked, how could such things be?He reminded His questioner of what Moses did when he lifted up the serpent. Inasmuch, then, as infants are by the sacrament of baptism conformed to the death of Christ, it must be admitted that they are also freed from the serpent's poisonous bit e, unless we willfully wander from the rule of the Christian faith. This bite, however, they did not receive in their own actual life, but in him on whom the wound was primarily inflicted. † As the church began to grow and dominate pagan societies it is evident that infant baptism took root and became a normal sacramental ritual. ubsequently, this turned out to be discernible, established upon the reality that in the ancient church baptism existed as an induction ritual into the body of believers, and those infants that are born into the body of believers are so are baptized, signifying being a part of the community . Another aspect seems to have been the increase in awareness on the matter of original sin and the idea that baptism sluiced away the blemish of original sin. Finally, the rules initially were understood as actually conveying grace and accomplishing something spiritually.Early on, approximately A. D. 400 Augustine petitions to the common observance of infant bapti sm as evidence that the church perceived infants to be born with the blemish of original sin. We find clear mention of infant baptism from Tertullian around A. D. 208. â€Å"The Lord does indeed say, forbid them not to come unto me. Let them come, 10 then, while they are growing up; let them come while they are learning, while they are learning whither to come; let them become Christians when they have become able to know Christ.Why does the innocent period of life hasten to the remission of sins? † Opposition to Augustine’s View of Original Sin In the course of Augustine ‘s life he spent a large quantity of his time contesting claims made by contemporaries of his day; such as, theologians, fellow Bishops, monks, and theorist. Of all his writing the most hotly contested was his writing on inherit sin (original sin) and his greatest opposition came from two men, Pelagius, and a follower of Pelagius, a man by the name of Julian of Eclanum who championed the priestà ¢â‚¬â„¢s ideas after his death.In 412 Augustine single-handedly launched an attack on Pelagius and, until his death in 430; much of his energy was concentrated on writing many anti-Pelagian diatribes. Regarding that â€Å"arch-heretic† Augustine thundered: â€Å"How hostile to salvation by Christ is his poisonous perversion of the truth! † Similarly, in modern times the same tactics take place in debate or public discourse on the idea of original sin, nonetheless, the preliminary groundwork can be attributed to Augustine compositions on the subject in the later 4th and early 5th centuries.The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin proposed to free and candid examination written by John Taylor is an example of contemporaries who contend with one another, his opponent was John Calvin’s and his writing on the doctrine of original sin. John Taylor like Augustine spends a great deal of time writing on the subject of original sin, particularly on the Genesis account; akin to Augustine, Taylor was enthused by the same section of scripture. In his reflection Taylor states, â€Å"Here observe, that for 11 nything that appears in the text, their sin the evil action they committed was personal-setting aside the tempter, no body committed that sinful act of disobedience but they themselves; first Eve and then Adam†¦the evil action was personal and committed by them so the punishment only belongs to them. † This statement is evident to the opposing view to Augustine that Taylor had in regards to original sin, according to him Adams sin was not inherit in humanity or a legacy that all of humanity would have to contend with.John Wesley in 1817 would write, The Doctrine of Original Sin: According to Scripture, Reason, and Experience, in Answer to Dr. Taylor was written nearly thirty years after the death of Taylor, confutes his ideology on original sin. Augustine a prolific writer composed many writings on multiple doctrines, his time as a Bishop was filled with effort to defend the faith against heresies from an earlier period in his life and those in his present. For example, the Donatist, Manichaeism, and Platonist Philosophies would impart and influence Augustine perception, life, and spiritual formation.Bearing in mind that Augustine adhered to some of these ideas during his late teens through young adulthood it is important to discuss their effect on his underlying principle, appraisal, and system of belief. Manichean Influence on Augustine’s View on Original Sin â€Å"As a Catholic Christian reflecting on his Manichaean past, Augustine felt it was necessary to stay away from patterns that had encouraged his pride. Augustine’s writings, especially the Confessions, demonstrate that he came to believe that Manichaean’s in general, and he himself in particular, had taken great pride in their false wisdom, the status it brought 2 them, and their abilities to enlist more people into the sect. † A lthough there is no evidence which may indicate a direct influence by this sect on Augustine’s point of view in regards to original sin, those in opposition to his view had speculated, possibly erroneously that a connection can be made, primarily because Augustine had such a harsh view on the Manichean. The main adherents to this speculation were the followers of Pelagius, â€Å"On account of a superficial resemblance between the doctrine of original sin and the Manichaeism theory of our nature being evil, the Pelagians accused the Catholics and St.Augustine of Manichaeism. † The proponents of Augustine have indicted him misguidedly, the belief that Augustine was the originator of the view on original sin and it being an offshoot of Manichaean fatalism. The apostle Paul speaks on the matter first and then Ireaneus of Lyons following in apostolic succession being trained by Polycarp goes on to quote the writings of Paul in Romans 5:12. Additionally, using the Genesis ac count, Ireaneus sought to bring cohesiveness to the argument in relation to the need of Christ saving fallen man and infant baptism many years before Augustine writes exhaustively and extensively on the topic.The two main features of Manichaean doctrine were, â€Å"Light (good) and darkness (evil) both being equal, timeless, and in great conflict with each other†¦man is lost and fallen in existence, but in essence he is a particle of Light and thus one in substance with God. Individual salvation consists in grasping this truth by illumination from God’s Spirit; Christ appears as merely a prophet and is not really incarnate. † The Gnostic form of belief (Manicheanism) did not believe in the redemptive work 13 f Christ nor did they observe the sacrament of baptism, therefore connecting Augustine writing on original sin to the Manichean belief on good and evil is ill-defined and wanders off the point when compared. Augustine as an older man admits his folly as a juve nile and young man studying the Manichean belief; recognizing his understanding about the nature of God was lacking to say the least because no one had ever educated t him otherwise. Therefore was I repelled by Thee, and Thou resistedst my changeable stiff neckedness; and I imagined corporeal forms, and, being flesh, I accused flesh, and, being â€Å"a wind that passeth away,† I returned not to Thee, but went wandering and wandering on towards those things that have no being, neither in Thee, nor in me, nor in the body. Neither were they created for me by Thy truth, but conceived by my vain conceit out of corporeal things. And I used to ask Thy faithful little ones, my fellow-citizens,—from whom I unconsciously stood exiled,—I used flippantly and foolishly to ask, â€Å"Why, then, doth the soul which God created err? But I would not permit any one to ask me, â€Å"Why, then, doth God err? † And I contended that Thy immutable substance erred of constraint , rather than admit that my mutable substance had gone astray of free will, and erred as a punishment. † This and others statements made by Augustine provide proof of him separating from the doctrine held by the Manicheans and it also demonstrates that the doctrine of original sin cannot be scrutinized in light of Manichaean doctrine or said influenced the doctrine of original sin.Pelagius, Celestiu, and Julian in opposition with Original Sin. There were some who opposed Augustine position on original; however the writings we have today clearer places Pelagius, a disciple of Pelagius named Celestisus, and a Southern Italian Bishop, Julian of Eclanum as the primary opposition Augustine had to contend with in his day. Pelagius (360-420 A. D) was a religious British monk who was extremely distinctive from Augustine and his foundation influential dogma that traditional Western Christendom adheres to today.A clash was inevitable and it came when Pelagius and his disciple Celestius left Italy in 14 409 in the face of an invasion and settled in Carthage, North Africa. The ensuing confrontation has since become known as the â€Å"Pelagian Controversy. † The details of this controversy comprise of several facets, the relationship between God and humanity respecting the doctrines of free will, sin, and grace. Pelagius for all instance and purposes, absolutely believed that the sin Adam committed was not transmitted to all of Humanity. Nothing good, and nothing evil, on account of which we are deemed either laudable or blameworthy, is born with us, but is done by us: for we are born not fully developed, but with a capacity for either conduct; we are formed naturally without either virtue or vice; and previous to the action of our own proper will, the only thing in man is what God has formed in him. † The statement made by Pelagius is in direct contention to the view of Original sin as presented by Augustine which held that the human will was incapable obtaining eternal life without the grace of God through Jesus Christ.Additionally, Pelagius concept of original sin consisted in an â€Å"imitation† of Adam and can be eliminated by an â€Å"imitation† of Christ and also taught infant baptism was not needed for the remission of any â€Å"original guilt. † This view of human nature received a great deal of criticism. Celestius, Pelagius, and their close associates were condemned at Carthage in C. E. 412. Other condemnations followed at Carthage and Milevum in 416 and at the great African council in Carthage in 418. The doctrine was finally anathematized at the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus in July of 431. 5 Augustine spent a great deal of time contending with the views held by Pelagius and others who followed his doctrine; Augustine was even asked by an imperial commissioner for instruction on how to deal with Pelagius. Augustine then after so much time disproving Pelagius had to vie with another antagonist , a Bishop and disciple of Pelagius, Julian of Eclanum. Julian Eclanum (c. 386- c. 455 A. D. ) promoted the belief’s of Pelagius several decades after his death. Julian expressed sharply his objection to the idea of a fundamental taint in human nature connected to Adam’s sin.Julian was one of many who had a great deal of trepidation with the theology of Augustine and would write multiple volumes spurning Augustine’s doctrine. Julian made several charges against Augustine and the Catholic Church; however, he would focus primarily on Augustine view of grace, original sin, and infant baptism. Julian charged Augustine with relapsing back into Manichean fatalism by teaching on the need for grace. â€Å"Julian chief charge of Mancihesim is predominantly related to its position that there is an evil principle at war against the good principle.He objected to Augustine’s doctrine of original sin as implying that all are born the power of the devil and have to be re-born in Christ. † Julian like most followers of Pelagius considered the sin of Adam less grave than Cain’s murder of Abel as evil, along these lines of thinking Julian purports a question, â€Å"why would God punish Adam’s sin with quite disproportionate penalty? † Answering the question states, that God would not; therefore, we have not inherited a skewed sinful nature from Adam. Additionally, going to say that man nature is similar to Adam before his fall, all people start off fall when it comes to sin.These and other 16 charges made by Julian would be proved false by Augustine; nevertheless, Julian succeeded in causing great distraction and Augustine would spend the latter part of his life contending with the Pelagian disciple. Conclusion Augustine the Bishop of Hippo is considered one of the greatest church fathers and apologetics in all Christendom; he made an immense contribution to Church dogma, holding people in the early church accountable to s cripture. Although his writings are now centuries old, have stood the test of time and provide fundamental essentials that the church today adheres too.Like some before him, Irenaeus, Origen, Polycarp, and Ignatius, Augustine understood scripture as being delicately shrouded allegorical idioms, purposely arrange by God in order for man to seek Him out through inquiry. Augustine thorough inquiry attempted to focus on and solve many theological and existential questions that many then and many today ponder over. For instance, Augustine writes on the need for sacramental baptism, prevenient grace, freewill, evil, original sin, turmoil, tragedy, human nature, and false doctrine. The answers to these philosophical, heological, and spiritual questions would take a life-time for Augustine to traverse, establishing him solidly as a great apologist, theologian, and more importantly a man of God. Augustine’s theology was shaped and formed through early life experience. Being inclined t o sin (lust of the flesh) saying of himself â€Å"so small a boy, so great a sinner† This brings to light a frame of thought Augustine details in two of his better known writings, City of God, and Confessions. In the compositions Augustine brings clarity and a deeper level of thought on multiple subjects, his candid memory illustrating his early innocence evolving, while 17 t the same time, providing great intellectual thought on substantive issues relating to scripture, dogma, heresies spiritual formation, faith, love, maturity, and much more, which would aid the church in its infancy. Overall Augustine presented a message that reiterated Romans 5:12, and the blessed hope (Christ) that all humanity is certain of, by God’s Grace to atone for our sins. 18 Bibliography Alan Jacobs. Original Sin, A Cultural History. 1st Edition. New York, NY: HarperCollins, 2001. Ambrose, Saint (Bishop of Milan: Ide M. Ni Riain). Commentary of Saint Ambrose on the Gospel according to Sain t Luke.Halcyon Press in association with Elo Publications, 2001. Augustine, Saint. Confessions of Saint Augustine. Translated by Edward B. Pusey, D. D. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. Augustine, Saint, A Treatise on Nature and Grace in Nicene Post Nicene Fathers, trans. Peter Holmes, ed. Philip Schaff. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library Augustine, Saint. On Forgiveness of Sin, and Baptism, translated by Phillip Schaff. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo, a Biography. 2nd Edition.Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2000. Clark, Mary. Augustine. New York London: Continuum, 2001. Etwell, Walter A. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology. Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cumbria, U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001. Hall, Christopher. Learning Theology with the Church Fathers. Downers Grove, Ill: Intervarsity Press, 2002. Harent, S. â€Å"Original Sin. † Catholic Encycl opedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Hiestand, Gerald. â€Å"Augustine and the justification debates: appropriating Augustine's doctrine of culpability. Trinity Journal 28, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 115-139. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). Irenaeus of Lyons, Irenaues Against Heries: Ante- Nicene Church Fathers, Philip Schaff, ed. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. McCann, C. (2009). Influence of Manichaeism on Augustine of Hippo as a spiritual mentor. Cistercian Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 255-277. Nassif, Bradley L. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299.ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). 19 Papageorgiou, P. (1995). Chrysostom and Augustine on the Sin of Adam and Its Consequences. St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 39(4), 361-378. Ph ipps, William E. â€Å"The heresiarch : Pelagius or Augustine?. † Anglican Theological Review 62, no. 2 (April 1, 1980): 124-133. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). Smither, Edward. Augustine as Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders. Nashville, Tenn: B ; H Academic, 2008 Taylor, John.The Doctrine of Original Sin Proposed to Free and Candid Examination. London: New Castle, 1845. Tertullian, Tertullian on Baptism. Translated by Rev. S. Thelwall. Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library. ——————————————– [ 1 ]. Nassif, Bradley L. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 2 ]. Alan Jacobs, Original Sin, A Cultural History (New York, NY: Harper Collins, 2001), ix. [ 3 ].Gerald Hiestand, â€Å"Augustine and the justification debates: appropriating Augustine's doctrine of culpability. † Trinity Journal 28, no. 1 (March 1, 2007): 115-139. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 4 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 2-3. [ 5 ]. Edward Smither, Augustine As Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders (Nashville, Tenn: B & H Academic, 2008), 103. [ 6 ]. Ide M. Ni Riain Saint Ambrose (Bishop of Milan), Commentary of Saint Ambrose on the Gospel according to Saint Luke (Halcyon Press in association with Elo Publications, 2001). 7 ]. Walter Elwell, Evangelical Dictionary of Theology (Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cambria, and U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 1103. [ 8 ]. Ibid, 1103 [ 9 ]. P. Papageorgiou. (1995). Chrysostom and Augustine on the Sin of Adam and Its Consequences. St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly, 39(4), 361-378. [ 10 ]. Augustine, Saint. Confessions of Saint Augustine. translated by Edward B. Pusey, D. D. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book 1, 7 [ 11 ]. Ibid, Confessions Book V, 8 [ 12 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 50-51. 13 ]. Ibid, 121-123. [ 14 ]. Peter Brown, Augustine of Hippo, a Biography, 2nd Edition (Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 2000), 419. [ 15 ]. Clark, 55. [ 16 ]. Bradley L Nassif. â€Å"Toward a â€Å"catholic† understanding of St Augustine's view of original sin. † Union Seminary Quarterly Review 39, no. 4 (January 1, 1984): 287-299. ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 17 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 18 ]. B. J. Gundlach and Walter A. Etwell ed. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology: Augustine of Hippo (Grand Rapids, Mich. Carlisle, Cumbria, U.K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 123. [ 19 ]. Irenaeus of Lyons, Irenaues Against Heries: Ante- Nicene Church Fathers, Philip Schaff, ed. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book V, chapter 23. [ 20 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 21 ]. Edward Smither, Augustine as Mentor: A Model for Preparing Spiritual Leaders. Nashville (Ten: B & H Academic, 2008), 104. [ 22 ]. Saint Augustine, Concerning the City of God, trans. Rev Marcus Dodds, D. D. (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book XII, 22. [ 23 ]. Clark, 95. [ 24 ]. Nassif, 287-299. 25 ]. Smither, 107-108. [ 26 ]. Brown, 387. [ 27 ]. Clark, 46. [ 28 ]. Saint Augustine, On Forgiveness of Sin, and Baptism, translated by Phillip Schaff (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), 43:27 [ 29 ]. Tertullian, Tertullian on Baptism, translated by Rev. S. Thelwall (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), Book 2. [ 30 ]. William E Phipps. â€Å"The Heresiarch: Pelagius or Augustine? † Anglican Theological Review 62, no. 2 (April 1, 1980): 124-133 . ATLA Religion Database with ATLASerials, EBSCOhost (accessed October 7, 2012). [ 31 ].John Taylor The Doctrine of Original Sin Proposed to Free and Candid Examination, (London: New Castle, 1845), 6-7. [ 32 ]. C. McCann, (2009). Influence of Manichaeism on Augustine of Hippo as a spiritual mentor. Cistercian Studies Quarterly, 44(3), 255-277. [ 33 ]. Harent, S. â€Å"Original Sin. † Catholic Encyclopedia. (New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911). Retrieved October 7, 2012 from New Advent: www. newadvent. org/cathen11312. htm. [ 34 ]. W. A. Hoffecker,. Evangelical Dictionary of Theology, Walter A. Elwell ed. Grand Rapids, Mich (Carlisle, Cumbria, U. K: Baker Academic Paternoster Press, 2001), 729. 35 ]. Augustine, Confession, Book IV, 15. [ 36 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 37 ]. Ibid. [ 38 ]. Augustine, â€Å"A Treatise on Nature and Grace† in Nicene Post Nicene Fathers, trans. Peter Holmes, ed Philip Schaff (Grand Rapids, MI: Christians Classics Ethereal Library), book V, 14 . [ 39 ]. Mary Clark, Augustine (New York London: Continuum, 2001), 48. [ 40 ]. Nassif, 287-299. [ 41 ]. Clark, 48. [ 42 ]. Hall, Christopher. Learning theology with the church fathers. Downers Grove (Ill: InterVarsity Press, 2002), 134. [ 43 ]. Clark 50-51 [ 44 ]. Hall, 146. [ 45 ]. Ibid [ 46 ]. Clark, Augustine, 2.